Summarized Chapters: "An Introduction to Sociolinguistics "

June 8, 2012

This is a comprehensive summary of "An Introduction to Sociolinguistics," by Janet Holmes, including key examples and Glossary (English into Arabic). I'm publishing the summary here for Sociolinguistics students.  

ملخص لكتاب مقدمة في اللسانيات الاجتماعية لجانيت هولمز. قمت بإعداد هذا الملخص عام ٢٠١٠، وأنشره لإفادة طلبة اللسانيات الاجتماعية في أقسام اللغة الإنجليزية.  

Summary of Chapter One: What do Sociolinguists Study?

This chapter defines the concept of sociolinguistics as:

·      the study of the relationship between language and society.

·      It is interested in examining the use of language in different contexts.

·      It identifies the social functions of language and the ways it is used to convey social meaning. 

Linguistic variation can provide social information.

Examining the use of language in different social contexts is very important.

The choice of one linguistic form rather than another is important,

because:

1-    It provides us with non-linguistic (social and regional) information. The two examples (example 1 and example 2) mentioned in the chapter clarify how the relationship between the two speakers governs the way of speaking, and how it specifies the choice of vocabulary items. In the first example, the speech serves many functions:

Ø It gives information (why the boy was late)

Ø Tells how the boy feels (angry and frustrated)

Ø Tells about the relationship between the two participants (in the first example, the relationship is intimate and friendly. However, the second example shows a formal, distant, and respectful relationship). 

In example 3, we realize how social factors such as relationship and feeling are reflected in addressing people. A mother would address her daughter in a way that differs from addressing a stranger. Because the relationship between the mother and the daughter is affectionate and intimate, the mother would use “dear” when addressing her daughter. However, if the mother is angry or more serious, she would use her daughter's first name to show seriousness. Therefore, the choice of vocabulary indicates social factors such as relationship and feelings.

2-   It reflects social identity. When we talk, we give clues to others about who we are, and where we came from, which enables people to know about our social and regional background. Another social factor is “ethnicity”. In example 3, the  use of the greeting “sut wyt ti?” indicates  Welsh ethnicity.

3-   Sociolinguistics is also interested in different types of linguistic variation used to express social factors.  

What is the Linguistic Variation? How does it happen? Here is how different types of linguistic variation are used to express social factors:

First, the linguistic variation occurs on the level of vocabulary, sounds, grammar (syntax), and word structure (morphology).

The linguistic variation leads to style, which is a group of different ways of expression.  Different styles are used in different social contexts. This may involve a use of different dialect or different language.

In example 4, each participant has their own way or method of speaking (their own style) which, in turn, gives information about the social background. The speaker who drops the “h” reflects his education and occupation, which is considered as lower than the other speaker. Therefore, although the two speakers share the same region, the linguistic variation on the level of pronunciation reflected the two speakers' social background.

In example 5, the linguistic variation is on the level of grammar and vocabulary.

In example 6, the linguistic variation occurs on the level of dialect. It involves the use of two different dialects. This means that they differ on the level pronunciation, vocabulary, grammar, and style.  In northern Norway, a village where people were studied by two sociolinguists, Blom and Gompers, used two different dialects: one was for formal use, and the other was for the casual use. The formal (Bokmal) was used for education, media and press, official business transactions, and in worship places.  The casual dialect (Ranamal) is the dialect used among family and friends. It was also used to communicate with shopkeepers. It signals one’s membership to the local community (the village), unlike the Bokmal that is used by strangers in the village. Therefore, if a local person used Bokmal while talking to a shopkeeper s/he will sound too funny or snobbish.

Another social factor is the topic. The topic of discussion influences the way we speak, making us show different choices of linguistic variation. In example 6, people in the Norwegian village select from two kinds of Norwegian dialects according to the topic of discussion. Talking about foreign politics or academic topics will force the speaker to select the formal dialect (Bokmal). Speakers will opt for (Ranamal) when they return home and talk about different topics related to their children or friends.

Definition

Any set of linguistic forms (a group of linguistic variations on the level of voc, grammar, pronunciation) that patterns according to, or that is influenced by social factors is called a code or variety. A variety is a set of linguistic forms used under specific social circumstances. It is a broad term that includes different accents, styles, dialects and even languages which contrast with each other for social reasons (the social factors).  The concept “variety” is very useful sociolinguistic term because:

Ø  It is neutral.

Ø  It covers all the different realizations of the abstract concept “language” in different social contexts.  

In example no. 7, the linguistic variation occurs on the level of languages. This means that each language has its own pronunciation, morphology, syntax and lexis. A speaker of one language cannot understand the speaker of another.  (Remember: this is opposite to dialects, where speakers used to understand each other).

In the example, a village called “Sauris” experienced three stages:

1.    It was a part of the Austrian empire. The people spoke German.

2.    Later, they used German for casual use (with friends and relatives) and Friulian with people outside the village, which has become a language of solidarity used by young men to each other.

3.    Italian was used for reading and writing, church and school as well as communicating with people from outside the region.  By 1971, adults were all trilingual (speaking three languages). In that village, the social distribution is also different.  Social distribution is accompanied by linguistic distribution as well. 

The Linguistic Repertoire is the distinguishable varieties or codes which are available for use in different social contexts.

In every community there is a range of varieties from which speakers select according to the context in which they are communicating.  People may use different pronunciations, styles, dialects or even languages for different purposes. In monolingual communities, people select different styles or dialects for different purposes. For example, in a small village like Lancashire, a woman’s repertoire would include the styles of English she needs in speaking to shopkeepers, bank employees, or her children and relatives.

In Malaysia, a woman’s repertoire would include two varieties of English with different styles, and two different varieties of Chinese with different styles. 

Social factors account for the use of linguistic variation. This depends on

Users: the participants                        Use:  setting, topic, and function.

Participants: The speakers in a speech event

Setting: the social context of the interaction (speech event)

The topic: the topic of discussion

The function: the purpose of this topic (why)

Also, there are four dimensions which are related to the social factors: 

1.    Social distance

2.    Status scale

3.    Formality scale

4.    functional scales

The Social Distance Scale is concerned with the relationship of participants. It emphasizes solidarity. How well we know someone influences our linguistic choice. The relationship, wether intimate or distant, affects the linguistic choice when speaking. We can therefore use nick names in calling our siblings or friends, but we cannot do so in addressing our teachers. The more formal the relation is, the more careful we are in choosing the appropriate linguistic form in addressing the speaker.

The Status Scale has two ends: superior (high status) and subordinate (low status).  The social status is relevant to the choice of linguistic forms. For example, dropping the (h) while speaking reflects a social group that is lower than that of someone who keeps the (h) in their pronunciation. Also, if a person is addressed by Mr. while he addresses others with their first names, it means that the person enjoys a higher or superior status.

The Formality Scale has to do with high formality and low formality. We evaluate formality of topics, and we use linguistic forms accordingly. For example, in the village called “Sauris”, the use of Italian was used for formal purposes (reading, writing, religious sermons), while the German was used for communication with family members. Similarly, Bokmal was used for formal purposes like education, newspapers, radio and TV, while Ranamal was used for casual purposes, such as communicating with the locals.   

Functional scales embrace two functions: referential and affective functions. Each speech event has its own function. The referential function provides information. For example, the weather bulletin provides information about what the expected temperatures will be like. However, if two people are talking to each other, and one of them is saying “it is too humid today,” this sentence here conveys feelings. The function here is affective. In Example 1, the boy speech serves referential and affective functions: he is giving information why he was late, and is expressing his frustration and fury towards the teacher. In speech, sometimes, one function dominates the other: The more referential is the topic, the less feelings it conveys, and vice versa.

So, these dimensions, along with the previously mentioned factors, provide a useful framework for discussing language in its social context.

Conclusion:

The chapter defined the study of linguistics, which is done by two tasks performed by sociolinguists: 

1-   Identifying the linguistic variation involved (wether pronunciation, syntax, lexis, morphology, dialects or languages).

2-   Identifying the non linguistic (social) factors and dimensions that led to the linguistic variation.

Glossary

Sociolinguistics علم اللسانيات الاجتماعية

Sociolinguist عالم لسانيات اجتماعية  

Monolingual أحادي اللغة

Bilingual ثنائي اللغة

Bilingual speech community مجتمع يتحدث لغتين

Multilingual متعدد اللغات

Trilingual ثلاثي اللغة

Linguistic variation التنوع اللغوي

Morphology علم التراكيب

Syntax علم البناء والنحو

Style نمط أو طريقة

Context سياق

Setting المكان (يقصد به مكان المحادثة)

Regional مكاني- إقليمي (له علاقة بالمكان أو البلد أو الإقليم)

Dialect لهجة محلية (مثلا اللهجة الخليجية- اللهجة المصرية)

Accent لكنة

Social status scale مقياس المكانة الاجتماعية (سواء عالية أو متواضعة)

Solidarity التضامن (يقصد به هنا الانتماء لمجتمع معين)

Social distance scale مقياس المسافة الاجتماعية (يراد به قياس مدى العلاقة الاجتماعية بين المتحدثين)                                                                                                       

Formality scale مقياس الرسمية (يراد به قياس مدى رسمية العلاقة بين المتحدثين سواء رسمية أو غير رسمية)                                                                                            

Referential يشير إلى معلومات

Affective يشير إلى حالة ومشاعر المتحدث

Social interaction التفاعل الاجتماعي

Linguistic repertoire المخزون اللغوي

Vocabulary choice اختيار المفردات